Archaeological Evidence

Bronze and Iron Age remains on the southeastern ridge and around the Gihon Spring document ancient occupation and major water-related construction. The chronology of the massive Spring Tower and associated fortifications is disputed: some researchers support a Middle Bronze Age date, while radiocarbon-based studies suggest later construction or alteration. The Stepped Stone Structure and nearby large stone architecture are also debated in date and function. The Amarna letters provide independent written evidence for a ruler of Jerusalem in the fourteenth century BC, but archaeology has not independently demonstrated David’s capture of the city.